Domination, regulation, and resistance: The impact of Aid to Dependent Children and tribal law on White Mountain Apache women, 1934--1960

This research analyzes the triple layer of state systems (namely, tribal, state, and federal governments) that culturally and morally dominated and regulated women of the White Mountain Apache Tribe in Arizona between 1934 and 1960. Laws, such as the Aid to Dependent Children program, are cultural expressions of the social group in power. Consequently, dominant white perspectives shape the underlying values and beliefs that guide the tenor and content of legislation. Similarly, the legal codes and constitutions of American Indian nations also define cultural relationships and have been impacted by white conceptions of law. As a historical case study of White Mountain Apache women, the data are based on archival research, which is supplemented by a limited number of consultations with experts in the field of tribal law. The overarching research questions are: How did the dominant society's constructions of race, class, and gender shape the inclusion and exclusion of White Mountain Apache women as they encountered Arizona's Aid to Dependent Children program, what reactions did the women have, and how were they regulated and/or supported by the Tribe's constitution and legal codes?; From 1934 until 1960 a persistent theme in the lives of White Mountain Apache women was the regulatory power of the federal and state governments. By imposing laws on the Tribe, the federal and state governments were able to introduce western cultural symbols and meanings into their society and mold the women (and men) into compliance with the prevailing social configurations. A similar impact was attained by the Aid to Dependent Children program. As the women gained entrance to ADC, they again encountered the regulatory force of the state. Social constructions and meanings surrounding marriage and work were two primary areas targeted by ADC. While ADC was not designed with the purpose of assimilating American Indians, its stigmatization of the poor, enforcement of the work ethic, support for the nuclear family, and legitimization of low-wage labor all worked to weave American Indians deeper into the fabric of American life.